犯罪学（Glossary） (コメント数：11)
1 manolo 2014-07-09 22:53:22 [PC]
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出典：『Criminology －The Essentials－』、Anthony Walsh、Sage Publications, Inc.、2012 Criminal Justice (Glossary) 1. Actus reus（犯罪行為） Literally, guilty act. Refers to the principle that a person must commit some forbidden act or neglect some mandatory act before he or she can be subjected to criminal sanctions. (p.267) 2. Aggravated assault（加重暴行） An unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury. (p.267) |
2 manolo 2014-07-09 22:57:08 [PC]
3. Aggravated murder or first-degree murder（第1級謀殺）
The most serious kind of murder, it requires that the act be committed with malice aforethought, deliberation, and premeditation（前もって計画すること）. (p.267)
4. Alcoholism
A chronic disease marked by progressive incapacity to control alcohol consumption despite psychological, social, or physiological disruptions. (p.267)
5. Alienation（疎外）
A condition that describes the estrangement（離反） or distancing of individuals from something, such as another person or from society in general. (p.267)
6. Anomie
A term meaning "lacking rules" or "normlessness" used by Durkheim to describe a condition of normative deregulation in society. (p.267)
7. Antisocial personality disorder
A psychiatric label described as “a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.”(p.267)
8. Arraignment（罪状認否（手続き））
A court proceeding in which the defendant answers to the charges against him or her by pleading guilty, not guilty, or no contest (nolo contendere、不抗争答弁―罪状認否手続きで有罪を認めたのと同じ効果を持つ). (p.267)
9. Arrest
The act of being legally detained to answer criminal charges on the basis of an arrest warrant or the belief of a law enforcement officer that there is probable cause to think that the person arrested has committed a felony（重罪） crime. (p.267)
10. Arson（放火）
Any willful or malicious burning or attempting to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, or personal property of another. (p.267)
11. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)（注意力欠損運動過剰障害）
A chronic neurological condition that is manifested as constant restlessness, impulsiveness, difficulty with peers, disruptive behavior, short attention span, academic underachievement, risk-taking behavior, and extreme boredom. (p.267)
12. Binge drinkers（大酒飲み）
People who frequently consume anywhere between 5 and 10 drinks in few hours’ time (go on a binge（痛飲する）). (p.268)
13. Burglary
The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. (p.268)
14. Carjacking
The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle from its occupant by force or threat by force. (p.268)
15. Causation
A legal principle stating that there must be an established proximate causal link between the criminal act and the harm suffered. (p.268)
3. Aggravated murder or first-degree murder（第1級謀殺）
The most serious kind of murder, it requires that the act be committed with malice aforethought, deliberation, and premeditation（前もって計画すること）. (p.267)
4. Alcoholism
A chronic disease marked by progressive incapacity to control alcohol consumption despite psychological, social, or physiological disruptions. (p.267)
5. Alienation（疎外）
A condition that describes the estrangement（離反） or distancing of individuals from something, such as another person or from society in general. (p.267)
6. Anomie
A term meaning "lacking rules" or "normlessness" used by Durkheim to describe a condition of normative deregulation in society. (p.267)
7. Antisocial personality disorder
A psychiatric label described as “a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.”(p.267)
8. Arraignment（罪状認否（手続き））
A court proceeding in which the defendant answers to the charges against him or her by pleading guilty, not guilty, or no contest (nolo contendere、不抗争答弁―罪状認否手続きで有罪を認めたのと同じ効果を持つ). (p.267)
9. Arrest
The act of being legally detained to answer criminal charges on the basis of an arrest warrant or the belief of a law enforcement officer that there is probable cause to think that the person arrested has committed a felony（重罪） crime. (p.267)
10. Arson（放火）
Any willful or malicious burning or attempting to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, or personal property of another. (p.267)
11. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)（注意力欠損運動過剰障害）
A chronic neurological condition that is manifested as constant restlessness, impulsiveness, difficulty with peers, disruptive behavior, short attention span, academic underachievement, risk-taking behavior, and extreme boredom. (p.267)
12. Binge drinkers（大酒飲み）
People who frequently consume anywhere between 5 and 10 drinks in few hours’ time (go on a binge（痛飲する）). (p.268)
13. Burglary
The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. (p.268)
14. Carjacking
The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle from its occupant by force or threat by force. (p.268)
15. Causation
A legal principle stating that there must be an established proximate causal link between the criminal act and the harm suffered. (p.268)
3 manolo 2014-07-09 22:58:45 [PC]
16. Choice structuring
A concept in rational choice theory referring to how people decide to offend, and defined as “the constellation of opportunities, costs, and benefits attaching to particular kinds of crime.” (p.268)
17. Commitment
One of the four social bonds in social bonding theory; the rational component of conformity referring to a lifestyle in which one has invested considerable time and energy in the pursuit of a lawful career. (p.268)
18. Concurrence
The legal principle stating that the act (actus reus) and the mental state (mens rea) concur in the sense that the criminal intention actuates the criminal act. (p.268)
19. Conduct disorder (CD)（非行）
The persistent display of serious antisocial actions that are extreme given the child’s developmental level and have a significant impact on the rights of others. (p.268)
20. Conscience
A complex mix of emotional and cognitive mechanisms that we acquire by internalizing the moral rules of our social group in the ongoing socialization process. (p.268)
21. Corporate crime
Criminal activity on behalf of a business organization. (p.268)
22. Corpus delicti（罪体／犯行構成事実―犯罪が行われたという事実または証拠物件）
A Latin term meaning “body of the crime.” Refers to the elements of a given act that must be present in order to legally define it as a crime. (p.268)
23. Counterfeiting（通貨偽造）
The illegal creation or altering of currency. (p.268)
24. Crime
Intentional act in violation of the criminal law, committed without defense or excuse and penalized by the state. (p.268)
25. Cybercrime
A wide variety of crime committed using computer technology. (p.269)
26. Decommodification
The process of freeing social relationships from economic considerations. (p.269)
27. Delinquency
A legal term that distinguishes between youthful (juvenile) offenders and adult offenders. Acts forbidden by law are called delinquent acts when committed by juveniles. (p,269)
28. Deterrence
The prevention of criminal acts by the use or threat of punishment; deterrence may be either specific or general. (p.269)
29. Domestic violence
Ay abusive act (physical, sexual, or psychological) that occurs within the family setting. Intimate partner violence is the most common form. (p.269)
30. Drug addiction
Compulsive drug-seeking behavior where acquiring and using a drug becomes the most important activity in the user’s life. (p.269)
31. Economic marginalization hypothesis
This hypothesis argues that much of the female crime is related to economic need. (p.269)
32. Economic-compulsive violence
Violence associated with efforts to obtain money to finance the cost of illicit drugs. (p.269)
16. Choice structuring
A concept in rational choice theory referring to how people decide to offend, and defined as “the constellation of opportunities, costs, and benefits attaching to particular kinds of crime.” (p.268)
17. Commitment
One of the four social bonds in social bonding theory; the rational component of conformity referring to a lifestyle in which one has invested considerable time and energy in the pursuit of a lawful career. (p.268)
18. Concurrence
The legal principle stating that the act (actus reus) and the mental state (mens rea) concur in the sense that the criminal intention actuates the criminal act. (p.268)
19. Conduct disorder (CD)（非行）
The persistent display of serious antisocial actions that are extreme given the child’s developmental level and have a significant impact on the rights of others. (p.268)
20. Conscience
A complex mix of emotional and cognitive mechanisms that we acquire by internalizing the moral rules of our social group in the ongoing socialization process. (p.268)
21. Corporate crime
Criminal activity on behalf of a business organization. (p.268)
22. Corpus delicti（罪体／犯行構成事実―犯罪が行われたという事実または証拠物件）
A Latin term meaning “body of the crime.” Refers to the elements of a given act that must be present in order to legally define it as a crime. (p.268)
23. Counterfeiting（通貨偽造）
The illegal creation or altering of currency. (p.268)
24. Crime
Intentional act in violation of the criminal law, committed without defense or excuse and penalized by the state. (p.268)
25. Cybercrime
A wide variety of crime committed using computer technology. (p.269)
26. Decommodification
The process of freeing social relationships from economic considerations. (p.269)
27. Delinquency
A legal term that distinguishes between youthful (juvenile) offenders and adult offenders. Acts forbidden by law are called delinquent acts when committed by juveniles. (p,269)
28. Deterrence
The prevention of criminal acts by the use or threat of punishment; deterrence may be either specific or general. (p.269)
29. Domestic violence
Ay abusive act (physical, sexual, or psychological) that occurs within the family setting. Intimate partner violence is the most common form. (p.269)
30. Drug addiction
Compulsive drug-seeking behavior where acquiring and using a drug becomes the most important activity in the user’s life. (p.269)
31. Economic marginalization hypothesis
This hypothesis argues that much of the female crime is related to economic need. (p.269)
32. Economic-compulsive violence
Violence associated with efforts to obtain money to finance the cost of illicit drugs. (p.269)
4 manolo 2014-07-09 23:05:44 [PC]
33. Embezzlement（横領）
The misappropriation or misapplication of money or property entrusted to the embezzler’s care, custody, or control. (p.269)
34. Felony murder（重罪の謀殺－強盗など重罪を犯す際、殺いなく起こした殺人で、謀殺（murder）とみなされる）
Murder committed during the commission of some other felony crime. (p.269)
35. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)（胎児期アルコール症候群―妊娠中の母親のアルコール過飲による精神遅滞。以上小頭症など）
A chronic condition affecting the brain resulting from an individual’s prenatal（出生前の） alcohol exposure. (p.269)
36. Forgery（文書偽造罪）
The creation pr alteration of documents to give them the appearance of legality and validity with the intention of gaining some fraudulent benefit from doing so. (p.270)
37. Fraud
Obtaining the money or property of another through deceptive practices such as false advertising, impersonation, and other misrepresentations. (p.270)
38. General deterrence
The assumed preventative effect of the threat of punishment on the general population, i.e. potential offenders.
39. Grand jury
An investigatory jury composed of 7 to 23 citizens before which the prosecutor presents evidence that sufficient grounds exist to try the suspect for a crime. If the prosecutor is successful, he or she obtains an indictment from the grand jury listing the charges a person is accused of. (p.270)
40. Hacker
A person who illicitly accesses someone else’s computer system. (p.270)
41. Harm
The legal principle that states that a crime must have a negative impact either on the victim or on the general values of the community to be a crime. (p.270)
42. Hedonistic calculus
Combining hedonism（快楽／享楽主義）and rationality to logically weigh the anticipated benefits of a given course of action against its possible costs. (p.270)
43. Hedonistic serial killer
A killer that kills for the pure thrill and joy of it. (p.270)
44. Hegemonic masculinity
Concept in structured action theory that refers to the cultural ideal of masculinity that men are expected to live up to, i.e., “work in the paid-labor market, the subordination of women, heterosexism, and the driven uncontrollable sexuality of men.”(p.270)
45. Honor subculture
Communities in which young men are hypersensitive to insult, rushing to defend their reputation in dominance contests. (p.270)
46. Human agency
A concept that maintains humans have the capacity to make choices and the moral responsibility to make moral ones, regardless of the internal or external constraints on one’s ability to do so. (p.270)
33. Embezzlement（横領）
The misappropriation or misapplication of money or property entrusted to the embezzler’s care, custody, or control. (p.269)
34. Felony murder（重罪の謀殺－強盗など重罪を犯す際、殺いなく起こした殺人で、謀殺（murder）とみなされる）
Murder committed during the commission of some other felony crime. (p.269)
35. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)（胎児期アルコール症候群―妊娠中の母親のアルコール過飲による精神遅滞。以上小頭症など）
A chronic condition affecting the brain resulting from an individual’s prenatal（出生前の） alcohol exposure. (p.269)
36. Forgery（文書偽造罪）
The creation pr alteration of documents to give them the appearance of legality and validity with the intention of gaining some fraudulent benefit from doing so. (p.270)
37. Fraud
Obtaining the money or property of another through deceptive practices such as false advertising, impersonation, and other misrepresentations. (p.270)
38. General deterrence
The assumed preventative effect of the threat of punishment on the general population, i.e. potential offenders.
39. Grand jury
An investigatory jury composed of 7 to 23 citizens before which the prosecutor presents evidence that sufficient grounds exist to try the suspect for a crime. If the prosecutor is successful, he or she obtains an indictment from the grand jury listing the charges a person is accused of. (p.270)
40. Hacker
A person who illicitly accesses someone else’s computer system. (p.270)
41. Harm
The legal principle that states that a crime must have a negative impact either on the victim or on the general values of the community to be a crime. (p.270)
42. Hedonistic calculus
Combining hedonism（快楽／享楽主義）and rationality to logically weigh the anticipated benefits of a given course of action against its possible costs. (p.270)
43. Hedonistic serial killer
A killer that kills for the pure thrill and joy of it. (p.270)
44. Hegemonic masculinity
Concept in structured action theory that refers to the cultural ideal of masculinity that men are expected to live up to, i.e., “work in the paid-labor market, the subordination of women, heterosexism, and the driven uncontrollable sexuality of men.”(p.270)
45. Honor subculture
Communities in which young men are hypersensitive to insult, rushing to defend their reputation in dominance contests. (p.270)
46. Human agency
A concept that maintains humans have the capacity to make choices and the moral responsibility to make moral ones, regardless of the internal or external constraints on one’s ability to do so. (p.270)
5 manolo 2014-07-09 23:08:03 [PC]
47. Identity theft
The use of someone else’s personal information without their permission to perpetrate an illegal act. (p.270)
48. Impulsiveness
A personality trait of reflecting a person’s varying tendencies to act on matter without giving much thought to the possible consequences (not looking before one leaps). (p.270)
49. Incarceration（拘禁）
The act of being confined to a secure institution as punishment for a crime. (p.271)
50. Integrated cognitive antisocial potential (ICAP) theory
Farrington’s theory, which is based on the notion that people having varying levels of antisocial propensity（性癖） due to a variety of environmental and biological factors. (p.271)
51. Involuntary manslaughter（過失致死）
A criminal homicide where an unintentional killing results from a reckless act. (p.271)
52. Labeling theory
A theory stating that the act of being caught and labeled delinquent or criminal serves as a self-fulfilling prophesy leading to further delinquent/criminal acts. (p.271)
53. La Cosa Nostra (LCN)
Literally, “our thing”; also commonly referred to as the Mafia; an organized crime group of Italian/Sicilian origins. (p.271)
54. Larceny-theft（窃盗）
The unlawful taking, leading, or riding away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another. (p.271)
55. Lifestyle theory
A theory stressing that crime is not just a behavior of a general pattern of life. (p.271)
56. Madrasas（（イスラム学者・指導者（ulama）を養成するための）高等教育施設）
Islamic religious schools that stress the immorality and materialism of Western life and the need to convert all infidels to Islam. (p.271)
57. Mala in se（自然犯）
Universally condemned crimes that are “inherently bad.”(p.271)
58. Mala prohibita（法定犯－道徳的に悪ではないが制定法に違反する犯罪）
Crimes that are “bad” simply because they are prohibited. (p.271)
59. Masculinization hypothesis
Freda Aler’s idea that as females increasingly adopt male roles, they will increasingly masculinize their attitudes and behavior and becomes as crime-prone as men. (p.271)
60. Maturity gap
In Moffitt’s theory, the gap between the average age of puberty and the acquisition of socially responsible adult roles. (p.271)
61. Mens rea（犯意、故意）
Literally, guilty mind. Refers to whether or not the suspect had a wrongful purpose in mind when carrying out the actus reus (guilty act). (p.271)
62. Middle class measuring rods
According to Albert Cohen, because low-class youths cannot measure up to middle-class standards, they experience status frustration and this frustration spawns an oppositional culture. (p.271)
47. Identity theft
The use of someone else’s personal information without their permission to perpetrate an illegal act. (p.270)
48. Impulsiveness
A personality trait of reflecting a person’s varying tendencies to act on matter without giving much thought to the possible consequences (not looking before one leaps). (p.270)
49. Incarceration（拘禁）
The act of being confined to a secure institution as punishment for a crime. (p.271)
50. Integrated cognitive antisocial potential (ICAP) theory
Farrington’s theory, which is based on the notion that people having varying levels of antisocial propensity（性癖） due to a variety of environmental and biological factors. (p.271)
51. Involuntary manslaughter（過失致死）
A criminal homicide where an unintentional killing results from a reckless act. (p.271)
52. Labeling theory
A theory stating that the act of being caught and labeled delinquent or criminal serves as a self-fulfilling prophesy leading to further delinquent/criminal acts. (p.271)
53. La Cosa Nostra (LCN)
Literally, “our thing”; also commonly referred to as the Mafia; an organized crime group of Italian/Sicilian origins. (p.271)
54. Larceny-theft（窃盗）
The unlawful taking, leading, or riding away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another. (p.271)
55. Lifestyle theory
A theory stressing that crime is not just a behavior of a general pattern of life. (p.271)
56. Madrasas（（イスラム学者・指導者（ulama）を養成するための）高等教育施設）
Islamic religious schools that stress the immorality and materialism of Western life and the need to convert all infidels to Islam. (p.271)
57. Mala in se（自然犯）
Universally condemned crimes that are “inherently bad.”(p.271)
58. Mala prohibita（法定犯－道徳的に悪ではないが制定法に違反する犯罪）
Crimes that are “bad” simply because they are prohibited. (p.271)
59. Masculinization hypothesis
Freda Aler’s idea that as females increasingly adopt male roles, they will increasingly masculinize their attitudes and behavior and becomes as crime-prone as men. (p.271)
60. Maturity gap
In Moffitt’s theory, the gap between the average age of puberty and the acquisition of socially responsible adult roles. (p.271)
61. Mens rea（犯意、故意）
Literally, guilty mind. Refers to whether or not the suspect had a wrongful purpose in mind when carrying out the actus reus (guilty act). (p.271)
62. Middle class measuring rods
According to Albert Cohen, because low-class youths cannot measure up to middle-class standards, they experience status frustration and this frustration spawns an oppositional culture. (p.271)
6 manolo 2014-07-09 23:13:06 [PC]
63. Minority power groups
Groups whose interests are sufficiently on the margins of mainstream society that just about all their activities are criminalized. (p.271)
64. Mission-oriented serial killer
A killer that feels it to be his mission in life to kill certain kinds of people. (p.271)
65. Modes of adaptation
Robert Merton’s concept of how people adapt to the alleged disjunction between cultural goals and structural barriers to the means of obtaining them. These modes are conformity, ritualism（儀式主義）, retreatism（退避主義―社会的文化的に規定された目標とそれを達成するための慣習を拒否すること）, innovation, and rebellion. (p.271)
66. Murder
The willful (non-negligent) killing of one human being by another. (p.271)
67. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
A biannual survey of a large number of people and households requesting information on crimes committed against individuals and households (whether reported to the police or not) and circumstances of the offense (time and place it occurred, perpetrator’s use of a weapon, any injuries incurred, and financial loss). (pp.271-272)
68. Natural selection
The evolutionary process that selects generic variants that best fit organisms in their present environments and preserves them in later generations. (p.272)
69. Negative emotionality
A personality trait that refers to the tendency to experience many situations as aversive, and to react to them with irritation and anger more readily than with positive affective states. (p.272)
70. Negligent manslaughter
An unintentional homicide that is charged when a death or deaths arise from some negligent act that carries a substantial risk of death to others. (p.272)
71. Opportunity structure theory
An extension of anomie theory claiming that that lower-class youth join gangs as a path to momentary success. (p.272)
72. Organized crime
A continuing criminal enterprise that works rationally to profit from illicit activities that are often in great public demand. Its continuing existence is maintained through the use of force, threats, and/or corruption of public officials. (p.272)
73. Parole（仮釈放、執行猶予）
A conditional release from prison granted to certain inmates sometime prior to the completion of their sentences. (p.272)
74. Part I offences (or index crimes)
The four violent (homicide, assault, forcible rape, and robbery) and four property offenses (larceny-theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, and arson) reported in the Uniform Crime Reports. (p.272)
75. Part II offences
The less serious offences reported in the Uniform Crime Reports; they are recorded based on arrests made rather than cases reported to the police. (p.272)
63. Minority power groups
Groups whose interests are sufficiently on the margins of mainstream society that just about all their activities are criminalized. (p.271)
64. Mission-oriented serial killer
A killer that feels it to be his mission in life to kill certain kinds of people. (p.271)
65. Modes of adaptation
Robert Merton’s concept of how people adapt to the alleged disjunction between cultural goals and structural barriers to the means of obtaining them. These modes are conformity, ritualism（儀式主義）, retreatism（退避主義―社会的文化的に規定された目標とそれを達成するための慣習を拒否すること）, innovation, and rebellion. (p.271)
66. Murder
The willful (non-negligent) killing of one human being by another. (p.271)
67. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
A biannual survey of a large number of people and households requesting information on crimes committed against individuals and households (whether reported to the police or not) and circumstances of the offense (time and place it occurred, perpetrator’s use of a weapon, any injuries incurred, and financial loss). (pp.271-272)
68. Natural selection
The evolutionary process that selects generic variants that best fit organisms in their present environments and preserves them in later generations. (p.272)
69. Negative emotionality
A personality trait that refers to the tendency to experience many situations as aversive, and to react to them with irritation and anger more readily than with positive affective states. (p.272)
70. Negligent manslaughter
An unintentional homicide that is charged when a death or deaths arise from some negligent act that carries a substantial risk of death to others. (p.272)
71. Opportunity structure theory
An extension of anomie theory claiming that that lower-class youth join gangs as a path to momentary success. (p.272)
72. Organized crime
A continuing criminal enterprise that works rationally to profit from illicit activities that are often in great public demand. Its continuing existence is maintained through the use of force, threats, and/or corruption of public officials. (p.272)
73. Parole（仮釈放、執行猶予）
A conditional release from prison granted to certain inmates sometime prior to the completion of their sentences. (p.272)
74. Part I offences (or index crimes)
The four violent (homicide, assault, forcible rape, and robbery) and four property offenses (larceny-theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, and arson) reported in the Uniform Crime Reports. (p.272)
75. Part II offences
The less serious offences reported in the Uniform Crime Reports; they are recorded based on arrests made rather than cases reported to the police. (p.272)
7 manolo 2014-07-09 23:17:39 [PC]
76. Patriarchy（家長制、父権社会）
Any social system that is male dominated at all levels, from the family to the highest reaches of government, and supported by the belief of male superiority. (p.272)
77. Personality
The relatively enduring, distinctive, integrated, and functional set of psychological characteristics that results from people’s temperaments interacting with their cultural and developmental experiences. (p.272)
78. Pharmacological（薬理学的） violence
Violence induced by the pharmacological properties of a drug. (p.272)
79. Physical dependence
The state in which a person is physically dependent on a drug because of changes to the body that have occurred after repeated use of it, and that necessitates its continued administration to avoid withdrawal symptoms. (p.272)
80. Power/control serial killer
A killer that gains the most satisfaction from exercising complete power over his victims. (p.272)
81. Power control theory
A feminist theory that views gender differences in criminal and delinquent behavior as a function of power differentials in the family. (p.272)
82. Preliminary arrangement
The presenting of suspects in court before a magistrate or municipal judge to advice them of their constitutional rights and of the tentative charges against them, and to set bail. (p.273)
83. Preliminary hearing
A proceeding before a magistrate or municipal judge in which three major matters must be decided; (1) whether or not a crime has actually been committed, (2) whether or not there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person before the bench committed it, and (3) whether or not the crime was committed in the jurisdiction of the court. (p.273)
84. Primary deviance（一次的逸脱）
In labelling theory, the initial nonconforming act that comes to the attention of the authorities, resulting in the application of a criminal label. (p.273)
85. Primitive rebellion hypothesis
Marxist idea that crime is simply the product of people rebelling against unjust and alienating social condition. (p.273)
86. Principle of utility
A principle that posits that human action should be judged moral or immoral by its effect on the happiness of the community and that the proper function of the legislature is to promulgate laws aimed at maximizing the pleasure and minimizing the pain of the largest number in society ? the greatest good for the greatest number.”(p.273)
87. Probation（保護観察）
A probation sentence is a suspended commitment to prison that is conditional on the offender’s good behavior. (p.273)
88. Prostitution
The provision of sexual services in exchange for money or other tangible reward as primary source of income. (p.273)
76. Patriarchy（家長制、父権社会）
Any social system that is male dominated at all levels, from the family to the highest reaches of government, and supported by the belief of male superiority. (p.272)
77. Personality
The relatively enduring, distinctive, integrated, and functional set of psychological characteristics that results from people’s temperaments interacting with their cultural and developmental experiences. (p.272)
78. Pharmacological（薬理学的） violence
Violence induced by the pharmacological properties of a drug. (p.272)
79. Physical dependence
The state in which a person is physically dependent on a drug because of changes to the body that have occurred after repeated use of it, and that necessitates its continued administration to avoid withdrawal symptoms. (p.272)
80. Power/control serial killer
A killer that gains the most satisfaction from exercising complete power over his victims. (p.272)
81. Power control theory
A feminist theory that views gender differences in criminal and delinquent behavior as a function of power differentials in the family. (p.272)
82. Preliminary arrangement
The presenting of suspects in court before a magistrate or municipal judge to advice them of their constitutional rights and of the tentative charges against them, and to set bail. (p.273)
83. Preliminary hearing
A proceeding before a magistrate or municipal judge in which three major matters must be decided; (1) whether or not a crime has actually been committed, (2) whether or not there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person before the bench committed it, and (3) whether or not the crime was committed in the jurisdiction of the court. (p.273)
84. Primary deviance（一次的逸脱）
In labelling theory, the initial nonconforming act that comes to the attention of the authorities, resulting in the application of a criminal label. (p.273)
85. Primitive rebellion hypothesis
Marxist idea that crime is simply the product of people rebelling against unjust and alienating social condition. (p.273)
86. Principle of utility
A principle that posits that human action should be judged moral or immoral by its effect on the happiness of the community and that the proper function of the legislature is to promulgate laws aimed at maximizing the pleasure and minimizing the pain of the largest number in society ? the greatest good for the greatest number.”(p.273)
87. Probation（保護観察）
A probation sentence is a suspended commitment to prison that is conditional on the offender’s good behavior. (p.273)
88. Prostitution
The provision of sexual services in exchange for money or other tangible reward as primary source of income. (p.273)
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89. Psychological dependence
The deep craving for drug and the feeling that one cannot function without it; psychological dependence is synonymous with addiction. (p.273)
90. Psychopathy（精神病質者）
A syndrome characterized by the inability to tie the social emotions with cognition. Psychopaths come from all social classes and may or may not be criminals. (p.273)
91. Punishment
The process that lead to the weakening or eliminating of the behavior preceding it. (p.273)
92. Rape trauma syndrome
A syndrome sometimes suffered by rape victims that is similar to post-traumatic stress syndrome (re-experiencing the event via “flashbacks,” avoiding anything at all associated with the event, and general numbness of affect). (p.273)
93. Rational
Rational behavior is a behavior consistent with logic: a logical “fit” between the goals people strive for and means they use to achieve them. (p.273)
94. Rational choice theory
A neoclassical theory asserting that offenders are free actors responsible for their own actions. Rational choice theorists view criminal acts as specific examples of the general principle that all human behavior reflects the rational pursuit of benefits and advantages. People are conscious social actors free to choose crime, and they will do so if they perceive that its utility exceeds the pains they might conceivably expect if discovered. (p.273)
95. Recidivism（常習的犯行）
Refers to “falling back” into criminal behavior after having being punished. (p.273)
96. Reinforcement（強化）
A process that leads to the repetition and strengthening of behavior. (p.273)
97. Restorative justice（修復的司法）
A system of mediation and conflict resolution oriented toward justice by repairing the harm that has been caused by the crime using a face-to-face confrontation between victim and perpetrator. (p.273)
98. Risk factor（危険因子）
Something in individual’s personal characteristics or their environment that increases the probability of offending. (p.273)
99. Robbery
The taking or attempt taking of anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or putting the victim in fear. (p.273)
100. Routine activity theory
A neoclassical theory pointing to the routine activities in that society or neighborhood that invite or prevent crime. Routine activities are defined as “recurrent and prevalent activities which provide for basic population and individual needs.” Crime is a result of (a) motivated offenders meeting (2) suitable target and lack (c) capable guardians. (p.273)
89. Psychological dependence
The deep craving for drug and the feeling that one cannot function without it; psychological dependence is synonymous with addiction. (p.273)
90. Psychopathy（精神病質者）
A syndrome characterized by the inability to tie the social emotions with cognition. Psychopaths come from all social classes and may or may not be criminals. (p.273)
91. Punishment
The process that lead to the weakening or eliminating of the behavior preceding it. (p.273)
92. Rape trauma syndrome
A syndrome sometimes suffered by rape victims that is similar to post-traumatic stress syndrome (re-experiencing the event via “flashbacks,” avoiding anything at all associated with the event, and general numbness of affect). (p.273)
93. Rational
Rational behavior is a behavior consistent with logic: a logical “fit” between the goals people strive for and means they use to achieve them. (p.273)
94. Rational choice theory
A neoclassical theory asserting that offenders are free actors responsible for their own actions. Rational choice theorists view criminal acts as specific examples of the general principle that all human behavior reflects the rational pursuit of benefits and advantages. People are conscious social actors free to choose crime, and they will do so if they perceive that its utility exceeds the pains they might conceivably expect if discovered. (p.273)
95. Recidivism（常習的犯行）
Refers to “falling back” into criminal behavior after having being punished. (p.273)
96. Reinforcement（強化）
A process that leads to the repetition and strengthening of behavior. (p.273)
97. Restorative justice（修復的司法）
A system of mediation and conflict resolution oriented toward justice by repairing the harm that has been caused by the crime using a face-to-face confrontation between victim and perpetrator. (p.273)
98. Risk factor（危険因子）
Something in individual’s personal characteristics or their environment that increases the probability of offending. (p.273)
99. Robbery
The taking or attempt taking of anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or putting the victim in fear. (p.273)
100. Routine activity theory
A neoclassical theory pointing to the routine activities in that society or neighborhood that invite or prevent crime. Routine activities are defined as “recurrent and prevalent activities which provide for basic population and individual needs.” Crime is a result of (a) motivated offenders meeting (2) suitable target and lack (c) capable guardians. (p.273)
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101. Routine activities/lifestyle theory
A victimization theory that states that there are certain lifestyles (routine activities) that disproportionately expose some people to a higher risk for victimization. (p.273)
102. Secondary deviance（二次的逸脱）
Deviance that results from society’s reaction to offender’s primary deviance. (p.274)
103. Self-control theory
Theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirsch that maintains all crime is attributable to an individual’s lack of self-control. (p.274)
104. Sensation seeking
The active desire for novel, varied, and extreme sensations and experiences, often to the point of taking physical and social risks to obtain them. (p.274)
105. Serial murder（連続殺人）
The killing of three or more victims over an extended period of time. (p.274)
106. Short-run hedonism
The seeking of immediate gratification of desires without regard for any long-term consequences. (p.274)
107. Social bond theory
A theory focusing on a person’s bonds to others. The four elements of the social bond are attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. The absence of these bonds in criminals does not cause crime; it permits it. (p.274)
108. Social capital（社会資本）
The store of positive relationships in social networks built on norms of reciprocity and trust developed over time upon which the individual can draw for support. (p.274)
109. Social control
Any action on the part of others, deliberate or not, that facilitates conformity to social rules. (p.274)
110. Social defense
A theory of punishment asserting that its purpose is not to deter or to rehabilitate but to defend society against criminals. (p.274)
111. Social disorganization（社会解体）
The central concept of the Chicago School of Social Ecology. It refers to the breakdown or serious dilution of the power of informal community rules to regulate conduct in poor neighborhoods. (p.274)
112. Social ecology
Term used by the Chicago School to describe the interrelations of human beings and the communities in which they live. (p.274)
113. Social push hypothesis
The idea that if an individual lacks environmental risk factors that predispose him or her toward antisocial behavior yet still engages in antisocial behavior, then the causes of this behavior are more likely to be biological than social. (p.274)
114. Social sentiments
Willem Bonger’s proposition that individuals vary in their risk for crime because they vary in the innate social sentiments of altruism and egoism. (p.274)
115. Social structure
How society is organized by social institutions－the family, and educational, religious, economic, and political institutions－and stratified on the basis of various roles and statuses. (p.274)
101. Routine activities/lifestyle theory
A victimization theory that states that there are certain lifestyles (routine activities) that disproportionately expose some people to a higher risk for victimization. (p.273)
102. Secondary deviance（二次的逸脱）
Deviance that results from society’s reaction to offender’s primary deviance. (p.274)
103. Self-control theory
Theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirsch that maintains all crime is attributable to an individual’s lack of self-control. (p.274)
104. Sensation seeking
The active desire for novel, varied, and extreme sensations and experiences, often to the point of taking physical and social risks to obtain them. (p.274)
105. Serial murder（連続殺人）
The killing of three or more victims over an extended period of time. (p.274)
106. Short-run hedonism
The seeking of immediate gratification of desires without regard for any long-term consequences. (p.274)
107. Social bond theory
A theory focusing on a person’s bonds to others. The four elements of the social bond are attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. The absence of these bonds in criminals does not cause crime; it permits it. (p.274)
108. Social capital（社会資本）
The store of positive relationships in social networks built on norms of reciprocity and trust developed over time upon which the individual can draw for support. (p.274)
109. Social control
Any action on the part of others, deliberate or not, that facilitates conformity to social rules. (p.274)
110. Social defense
A theory of punishment asserting that its purpose is not to deter or to rehabilitate but to defend society against criminals. (p.274)
111. Social disorganization（社会解体）
The central concept of the Chicago School of Social Ecology. It refers to the breakdown or serious dilution of the power of informal community rules to regulate conduct in poor neighborhoods. (p.274)
112. Social ecology
Term used by the Chicago School to describe the interrelations of human beings and the communities in which they live. (p.274)
113. Social push hypothesis
The idea that if an individual lacks environmental risk factors that predispose him or her toward antisocial behavior yet still engages in antisocial behavior, then the causes of this behavior are more likely to be biological than social. (p.274)
114. Social sentiments
Willem Bonger’s proposition that individuals vary in their risk for crime because they vary in the innate social sentiments of altruism and egoism. (p.274)
115. Social structure
How society is organized by social institutions－the family, and educational, religious, economic, and political institutions－and stratified on the basis of various roles and statuses. (p.274)
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116. Sociopaths（社会病質者）
All sociopaths are criminals by definition. The development of sociopathy is not as closely tied to genetics as it is in psychopaths, but is developed primary through inadequate socialization and hostile childhood experiences. (p.274)
117. Software piracy
Illegally copying and distributing computer software. (p.274)
118. Specific deterrence
The effect of punishment on the future behavior of the person who experiences the punishment. (p.274)
119. Spree murder
The killing of several people at different locations over several days. (p274)
120. Status frustration
A form of frustration experienced by lower-class youth who desire approval and status but who cannot meet middle-class criteria and thus seek via alternative means. (p.274)
121. Subculture of violence
A part of a larger culture in which the norms, attitudes, and values of its people legitimizes the use of violence. (p.274)
122. Symbolic interactionism
A perspective in sociology that focuses on how people interpret and define their social reality and the meanings they attach to it in the process of interacting with one another via language (symbols). (p.274)
123. Systemic violence
Violence associated with aggressive patterns of interaction within the system of drug distribution and use. (p.274)
124. Temperament
An individual characteristic identifiable as early as infancy that constitutes a habitual mode of emotionally responding to stimuli. (p.275)
125. Terrorism
The FBI defines terrorism as “the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social goals. (p.275)
126. Traits
Components or features of person’s own personality that all humans share to varying degrees, such as self-control, shyness, and consciousness. (p.275)
127. Type I alcoholism
A form of alcoholism characterized by mild abuse, minimal criminality, and passive-dependent personality. (p.275)
128. Type II alcoholism
A form of alcoholism characterized by early onset, violence, and criminality, and that is largely limited to males. (p.275)
129. Victim participation theory
A theory in victimology that examines how violent victimization may have been precipitated by the victim by acting in certain provocative ways. (p.275)
130. Violent crime
Crime in which the use of force exercised without excuse of justification to achieve goal at the expense of a victim. (p.275)
116. Sociopaths（社会病質者）
All sociopaths are criminals by definition. The development of sociopathy is not as closely tied to genetics as it is in psychopaths, but is developed primary through inadequate socialization and hostile childhood experiences. (p.274)
117. Software piracy
Illegally copying and distributing computer software. (p.274)
118. Specific deterrence
The effect of punishment on the future behavior of the person who experiences the punishment. (p.274)
119. Spree murder
The killing of several people at different locations over several days. (p274)
120. Status frustration
A form of frustration experienced by lower-class youth who desire approval and status but who cannot meet middle-class criteria and thus seek via alternative means. (p.274)
121. Subculture of violence
A part of a larger culture in which the norms, attitudes, and values of its people legitimizes the use of violence. (p.274)
122. Symbolic interactionism
A perspective in sociology that focuses on how people interpret and define their social reality and the meanings they attach to it in the process of interacting with one another via language (symbols). (p.274)
123. Systemic violence
Violence associated with aggressive patterns of interaction within the system of drug distribution and use. (p.274)
124. Temperament
An individual characteristic identifiable as early as infancy that constitutes a habitual mode of emotionally responding to stimuli. (p.275)
125. Terrorism
The FBI defines terrorism as “the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social goals. (p.275)
126. Traits
Components or features of person’s own personality that all humans share to varying degrees, such as self-control, shyness, and consciousness. (p.275)
127. Type I alcoholism
A form of alcoholism characterized by mild abuse, minimal criminality, and passive-dependent personality. (p.275)
128. Type II alcoholism
A form of alcoholism characterized by early onset, violence, and criminality, and that is largely limited to males. (p.275)
129. Victim participation theory
A theory in victimology that examines how violent victimization may have been precipitated by the victim by acting in certain provocative ways. (p.275)
130. Violent crime
Crime in which the use of force exercised without excuse of justification to achieve goal at the expense of a victim. (p.275)
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131. Voluntary manslaughter
The intentional killing of another human being without malice aforethought, often in response to the mistaken belief that self-defense required the use of deadly force, or in response to adequate provocation while in the heat of passion. (p.275)
132. White-collar crime（脱税・横領・使い込み・贈収賄などの犯罪）
An illegal act or series of illegal acts committed by nonphysical means and by concealment or guile（たくらみ）, to obtain money or property or to obtain business or personal advantage. (p.275)
133. Withdrawals
A process of involving a number of adverse physical reactions that occur when the body of a drug abuser is deprived of his or her drugs. (p.275)
131. Voluntary manslaughter
The intentional killing of another human being without malice aforethought, often in response to the mistaken belief that self-defense required the use of deadly force, or in response to adequate provocation while in the heat of passion. (p.275)
132. White-collar crime（脱税・横領・使い込み・贈収賄などの犯罪）
An illegal act or series of illegal acts committed by nonphysical means and by concealment or guile（たくらみ）, to obtain money or property or to obtain business or personal advantage. (p.275)
133. Withdrawals
A process of involving a number of adverse physical reactions that occur when the body of a drug abuser is deprived of his or her drugs. (p.275)