政治理論（Glossary） (コメント数：9)
1 manolo 2014-04-04 14:50:33 [PC]
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出典：『Issues in Political Theory (2nd Ed.）』、Catriona McKinnon、Oxford University Press、2012 1. act utilitarianism Act utilitarianism is the view that all of our actions should aim to maximize the amount of collective utility of all persons or even sentient beings. For example, a hedonistic version of act utilitarianism would require that we act so as to maximize the amount of pleasure and minimize the amount of pain in the world. Cf. rule utilitarianism (p.331) 2. aggregative justice An aggregative conception of justice is one that primarily focuses on the total amount of a given x. Imagine that this x is, for example, 'opportunity for well-being'. The aggregative approach will aim at maximizing its total amount, even at the cost of a more unequal distribution of it. Cf. distributive justice (p.331) |
2 manolo 2014-04-04 15:15:50 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
3. anti-egalitarian suffcientarianism
This is a suffciency principle that attaches great importance to the universal attainment of certain critical level of advantage, and denies the importance of equality or priority once such level has been universally attained. (p.331)
4. assimilation
This term refers to a policy that encourage cultural minorities to lose their distinctive customs or norms on order to fit in more easily with the rest of society. Assimilation is often resisted by minority cultures. Cf. intergration (p.331)
5. autonomy
An individual has sutonomy (or individuality) to the extent that he or she rationally chooses his or her acts and omissions in accrod with his or her own judgement and inclination -- where 'rationality' implies at least a minimum capacity to understand and foresees the prbable consequences of those acts and omissions. The individual may have autonomy without necessarily having moral autonomy. (p.331)
6. autonomy theory
This approach focuses on the rationality of human beings with specific reference to their capacity to make moral choices, in relation to both what dury requires of them and the capacity to choose to do what their reason tells them to be morally right. (p.331)
7. basic libety principle
A principle of social justice defended by Rawls that restricts inequality by insisting on upholding the fair value of rights to participate in the political system and not merely more familiar civil liberties. (p.331)
8. bill of rights
A declaration of citizens' rights or human rights, normally incorporated in a constitutions and sometimes used by courts to override legislation or executive action deemed to be contrary to the bill of rights. (p.331)
9. brute luck
This referes to luck inherent to the conditions faced by individuals and independent of the choices they have made. Cf. option luck. (p.331)
10. civil disobedience
A method of protest in which participants break specific laws in an cordinated fashion in order to address an injustice. Some theorists add that civil disobedience must be open and accountable, in the sence that participants must not try to keep their illegal acts secret and they must subsequently submit to due legal process. (pp.331-332)
11. classical utilitarianism
A version of utilitarianism that posits that a morally right act is that whcih maximizes the greatest good of the greatest number. The idea is associated with Jeremy Bentham and Henry Sidgwick. (p.332)
政治理論（glossary）
3. anti-egalitarian suffcientarianism
This is a suffciency principle that attaches great importance to the universal attainment of certain critical level of advantage, and denies the importance of equality or priority once such level has been universally attained. (p.331)
4. assimilation
This term refers to a policy that encourage cultural minorities to lose their distinctive customs or norms on order to fit in more easily with the rest of society. Assimilation is often resisted by minority cultures. Cf. intergration (p.331)
5. autonomy
An individual has sutonomy (or individuality) to the extent that he or she rationally chooses his or her acts and omissions in accrod with his or her own judgement and inclination -- where 'rationality' implies at least a minimum capacity to understand and foresees the prbable consequences of those acts and omissions. The individual may have autonomy without necessarily having moral autonomy. (p.331)
6. autonomy theory
This approach focuses on the rationality of human beings with specific reference to their capacity to make moral choices, in relation to both what dury requires of them and the capacity to choose to do what their reason tells them to be morally right. (p.331)
7. basic libety principle
A principle of social justice defended by Rawls that restricts inequality by insisting on upholding the fair value of rights to participate in the political system and not merely more familiar civil liberties. (p.331)
8. bill of rights
A declaration of citizens' rights or human rights, normally incorporated in a constitutions and sometimes used by courts to override legislation or executive action deemed to be contrary to the bill of rights. (p.331)
9. brute luck
This referes to luck inherent to the conditions faced by individuals and independent of the choices they have made. Cf. option luck. (p.331)
10. civil disobedience
A method of protest in which participants break specific laws in an cordinated fashion in order to address an injustice. Some theorists add that civil disobedience must be open and accountable, in the sence that participants must not try to keep their illegal acts secret and they must subsequently submit to due legal process. (pp.331-332)
11. classical utilitarianism
A version of utilitarianism that posits that a morally right act is that whcih maximizes the greatest good of the greatest number. The idea is associated with Jeremy Bentham and Henry Sidgwick. (p.332)
3 manolo 2014-04-04 15:51:54 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
12. coersion
The forcing of someone to do something by threatening him or her with an unpleasant outcome if he or she does not comply. Some theorists think that the threatened outcome must also be wrongful in order for the threat to count as coersive. The term is sometimes used more widely to refer to the use of force, both threatened and actual, to achieve some aim.(p.332)
13. consequentialism
A moral theory that bases the rightness or wrongness of conduct solely on the extent to which it maximizes good consequences and minimizes bad consequences. (p.332)
14. contract theory
The view that political authority and obligation is justified, because citizens have formed a contract with each other to obey the law. Unlike the term consent theory, the term contract theory is not usually used for the view that contemporary citizens give their tacit consent to obey the law, being more commonly used in relation to hypothetical consent theory. (p.332)
15. cultural identity
This refers to an individual's sense of belonging to a cultural or ethnic group. The term is most often used to describe the content of that individual's identity, for example 'wearing the veil is part of my cultural identity'. (p.333)
16. cultural relativism
The view that either (a) what is right or wrong is entirely a matter for cultural determiniation and/or (b) that there is no basis for saying that values of one culture are batter than those of another. (p.333)
17. deliberative democracy
A form of collective decision-making whereby laws and policies are legitimate to the extent that they are publicly justified to the citizens of the community. Public justification is justification to each citizen as a result of free and reasoned debate among equals. (p.333)
18. deontology
A theory that grounds morality in imperatives that lay down moral obligations that are independent of the consequences of their being followed. (p.333)
19. descriptive
Concerned with how things actually are in the world or how they would be if something were to happen. (Cf. normative) (p.333)
政治理論（glossary）
12. coersion
The forcing of someone to do something by threatening him or her with an unpleasant outcome if he or she does not comply. Some theorists think that the threatened outcome must also be wrongful in order for the threat to count as coersive. The term is sometimes used more widely to refer to the use of force, both threatened and actual, to achieve some aim.(p.332)
13. consequentialism
A moral theory that bases the rightness or wrongness of conduct solely on the extent to which it maximizes good consequences and minimizes bad consequences. (p.332)
14. contract theory
The view that political authority and obligation is justified, because citizens have formed a contract with each other to obey the law. Unlike the term consent theory, the term contract theory is not usually used for the view that contemporary citizens give their tacit consent to obey the law, being more commonly used in relation to hypothetical consent theory. (p.332)
15. cultural identity
This refers to an individual's sense of belonging to a cultural or ethnic group. The term is most often used to describe the content of that individual's identity, for example 'wearing the veil is part of my cultural identity'. (p.333)
16. cultural relativism
The view that either (a) what is right or wrong is entirely a matter for cultural determiniation and/or (b) that there is no basis for saying that values of one culture are batter than those of another. (p.333)
17. deliberative democracy
A form of collective decision-making whereby laws and policies are legitimate to the extent that they are publicly justified to the citizens of the community. Public justification is justification to each citizen as a result of free and reasoned debate among equals. (p.333)
18. deontology
A theory that grounds morality in imperatives that lay down moral obligations that are independent of the consequences of their being followed. (p.333)
19. descriptive
Concerned with how things actually are in the world or how they would be if something were to happen. (Cf. normative) (p.333)
4 manolo 2014-04-04 16:18:05 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
20. distributive justice
A distributive conception of justice is one that primarily focuses on the distribution of this x in sciety. Imagine that this x is, for example, 'opportuity for well-being'. The distributive approach will care about how the 'pie' of opportunity for well-being is divided up, even if it means that we will end up with a smaller 'pie'. Cf. aggregative justice.(p.333)
21. freedom of expression
This refers to the freedom to express oneself in speech, writing, performance, apperance, etc., without fear of punishment or social censure. It is variously defended in the name of individual autonomy, self-respect, pursuit of truth and knowledge, and also scepticism about the existence of universal truths, or our abilty to know them.(p.334)
22. hypothetical consent
Consent that would be given in some imagined world if certain conditions were to obtain that do not, in fact, obtain. Cf. express consent and tacit consent. (p.334)
23. intergration
The idea that different cultural groups within the same country can belong equally to it, but still have different institutions and rights. The opposite of integration is segregation. Multicultural thinkers greatly prefer integration to the idea of assimilation. (p.335)
24. international resource privilege
This refers to the way in which governments may freely dispose of their country's natural resources in a way that is legally recongnized internationally. (p.335)
25. judicial review
A mechanism whereby legislation can be challenged through the courts on the grounds that it infringes one or more of the rights recognized by a constitution. Judges will evaluate whether, in fact, the legislation does so and will be empowered to invalidate the law in question, or the offending part of the law, if the case is proven. (p.335)
26. jurisdiction
Refers to the right to exercise legal authority and the limits within that right may be exercised. (p.335)
政治理論（glossary）
20. distributive justice
A distributive conception of justice is one that primarily focuses on the distribution of this x in sciety. Imagine that this x is, for example, 'opportuity for well-being'. The distributive approach will care about how the 'pie' of opportunity for well-being is divided up, even if it means that we will end up with a smaller 'pie'. Cf. aggregative justice.(p.333)
21. freedom of expression
This refers to the freedom to express oneself in speech, writing, performance, apperance, etc., without fear of punishment or social censure. It is variously defended in the name of individual autonomy, self-respect, pursuit of truth and knowledge, and also scepticism about the existence of universal truths, or our abilty to know them.(p.334)
22. hypothetical consent
Consent that would be given in some imagined world if certain conditions were to obtain that do not, in fact, obtain. Cf. express consent and tacit consent. (p.334)
23. intergration
The idea that different cultural groups within the same country can belong equally to it, but still have different institutions and rights. The opposite of integration is segregation. Multicultural thinkers greatly prefer integration to the idea of assimilation. (p.335)
24. international resource privilege
This refers to the way in which governments may freely dispose of their country's natural resources in a way that is legally recongnized internationally. (p.335)
25. judicial review
A mechanism whereby legislation can be challenged through the courts on the grounds that it infringes one or more of the rights recognized by a constitution. Judges will evaluate whether, in fact, the legislation does so and will be empowered to invalidate the law in question, or the offending part of the law, if the case is proven. (p.335)
26. jurisdiction
Refers to the right to exercise legal authority and the limits within that right may be exercised. (p.335)
5 manolo 2014-04-04 16:54:15 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
27. just war
An account of how war should conform to moral regulation. Cf. pacifism, realism, and romantic militarism. (p.335)
28. legal positivism
The view that rights are creation of positive law or conventional social norms that set out what is acceptable behaviour in particular societies. Positivists hold that these rights are subject to evaluation, criticism, and moral legislation, but contend that this is a matter of deciding whether rights serve important human values and interests, rather than of acquiring knowledge of pre-existing natural or moral rights. (p.335)
29. levelling down objection（「水準低下の異議」）
This refers to the committment of those who endorse the principles of comparative egalitarianism to thinking that it would in one way be better if everybody were to be poor or blind, rather than if only some were to be rich or sighted, because then there would be more equality. (p.335)
30. libetarian
This refers to an ideology that celebrates freedom and is suspicious of government. The term was originally associated--and in some circles still is associated--with the anarchist version of a non-coersive, egalitarian society, based on social cooperation. Its more common usage in contemporary political theory is to refer to a right-wing ideology that advocates, for both economic and moral reasons, a minimal role for government and a maximal role for the market in economic affairs. (p.335)
31. liberty
An individual has liberty in a purely descriptive sense in relation to given domain of acts and omissions if, and only if, he or she can do as he or she wishes within that domain. If the indivuduals chooses whatever act or omission her of she likes, then it follows that other people are not preventing that individual from acting, or omitting to act, as he or she chooses. The domain of conduct in relation to which an individual has liberty may be extensive or narrow, depending on context. As long as he or she can choose even a single act or omission, however, that individual is at liberty in relation to that particular act or omission. It is a separate question whether the individual's liberty has value in a given context. (pp.335-336)
32. minimal state
Introduced by Robert Nozick, the term refers to a state that restricts itself to enforcing basic property rights and rights against harm. A minimal state exercises sole authority in a given territory to arbitrate in jucidial matters and enforce its judgments. Its protection is afforded by to all who live within that territory. (p.336)
政治理論（glossary）
27. just war
An account of how war should conform to moral regulation. Cf. pacifism, realism, and romantic militarism. (p.335)
28. legal positivism
The view that rights are creation of positive law or conventional social norms that set out what is acceptable behaviour in particular societies. Positivists hold that these rights are subject to evaluation, criticism, and moral legislation, but contend that this is a matter of deciding whether rights serve important human values and interests, rather than of acquiring knowledge of pre-existing natural or moral rights. (p.335)
29. levelling down objection（「水準低下の異議」）
This refers to the committment of those who endorse the principles of comparative egalitarianism to thinking that it would in one way be better if everybody were to be poor or blind, rather than if only some were to be rich or sighted, because then there would be more equality. (p.335)
30. libetarian
This refers to an ideology that celebrates freedom and is suspicious of government. The term was originally associated--and in some circles still is associated--with the anarchist version of a non-coersive, egalitarian society, based on social cooperation. Its more common usage in contemporary political theory is to refer to a right-wing ideology that advocates, for both economic and moral reasons, a minimal role for government and a maximal role for the market in economic affairs. (p.335)
31. liberty
An individual has liberty in a purely descriptive sense in relation to given domain of acts and omissions if, and only if, he or she can do as he or she wishes within that domain. If the indivuduals chooses whatever act or omission her of she likes, then it follows that other people are not preventing that individual from acting, or omitting to act, as he or she chooses. The domain of conduct in relation to which an individual has liberty may be extensive or narrow, depending on context. As long as he or she can choose even a single act or omission, however, that individual is at liberty in relation to that particular act or omission. It is a separate question whether the individual's liberty has value in a given context. (pp.335-336)
32. minimal state
Introduced by Robert Nozick, the term refers to a state that restricts itself to enforcing basic property rights and rights against harm. A minimal state exercises sole authority in a given territory to arbitrate in jucidial matters and enforce its judgments. Its protection is afforded by to all who live within that territory. (p.336)
6 manolo 2014-04-04 17:16:46 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
33. moral autonomy
An individual has moral auatonomy if, in addition to having autonomy, his or her conduct satisfied ethical standards of right conduct prescribed by a given theory of morality. The ethical standards might be incorporated within a thick concept of rationality, or they might be assumed to constitute a concept of reasonableness that is independent of a thin concept of rationality. Ethical standards may vary across differnet moral theories and, in some instances, may overlap with standards of beauty established by aestheric theories.(p.336)
34. multicuturalism
This term can refer to the fact of cultural diversity in countries rainging from the former Yugoslavia to the UK, and may also describe the coexistence of different kinds of cultural group within a country.(p.336)
35. neoliberalism
An approach to democracy that minimizes the scope of the authorty of the state and turns most decisions over to the market or voluntary organizations. Cf. elite theory and interest group plualism (p.336)
36. normative
Concerned with how things outght to be or what people ought to do. Cf. descriptive (p.33&)
37. option luck
A technical term that has been widely employed since Dwarkin used it, which refers to luck in the choices that individuals make rather than that of the conditions into which an individual is born or brought for reasons independent of his or her will. Cf. brute luck (p.336)
38. pacifism
A reaction to warfare that rejects it as utterly immoral. Cf. realism (p.337)
39. patriarcy
The literally means 'rule of the father'. It is used in feminist philosophy to mean a society that is structured according to sexual inequality, with men being advantaged and women disadvantaged. Patriarchies, in this feminist sense, need not have male political leaders, although men usually occupy more positions of political power than do women. (p.337)
40. popular sovereignty
The view that sovereignty belongs to the people and, tehrefore, that authority is legitimate when it rests (directly or indirectly) on the consent of those subject to it. (p.337)
政治理論（glossary）
33. moral autonomy
An individual has moral auatonomy if, in addition to having autonomy, his or her conduct satisfied ethical standards of right conduct prescribed by a given theory of morality. The ethical standards might be incorporated within a thick concept of rationality, or they might be assumed to constitute a concept of reasonableness that is independent of a thin concept of rationality. Ethical standards may vary across differnet moral theories and, in some instances, may overlap with standards of beauty established by aestheric theories.(p.336)
34. multicuturalism
This term can refer to the fact of cultural diversity in countries rainging from the former Yugoslavia to the UK, and may also describe the coexistence of different kinds of cultural group within a country.(p.336)
35. neoliberalism
An approach to democracy that minimizes the scope of the authorty of the state and turns most decisions over to the market or voluntary organizations. Cf. elite theory and interest group plualism (p.336)
36. normative
Concerned with how things outght to be or what people ought to do. Cf. descriptive (p.33&)
37. option luck
A technical term that has been widely employed since Dwarkin used it, which refers to luck in the choices that individuals make rather than that of the conditions into which an individual is born or brought for reasons independent of his or her will. Cf. brute luck (p.336)
38. pacifism
A reaction to warfare that rejects it as utterly immoral. Cf. realism (p.337)
39. patriarcy
The literally means 'rule of the father'. It is used in feminist philosophy to mean a society that is structured according to sexual inequality, with men being advantaged and women disadvantaged. Patriarchies, in this feminist sense, need not have male political leaders, although men usually occupy more positions of political power than do women. (p.337)
40. popular sovereignty
The view that sovereignty belongs to the people and, tehrefore, that authority is legitimate when it rests (directly or indirectly) on the consent of those subject to it. (p.337)
7 manolo 2014-04-05 18:46:05 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
41. prioritarianism
A distributive principle according to which the moral value of a benefit or disvalue of a burden diminishes as an individual becomes better off. The standard form of this view requires attaching non-absolute prority to the interests of the less advantaged and is not comparative, although forms of camparative prioritarianism, moderate prioritarianism, and extreme prioritarianism also exist. (p.337)
42. public sphere
Defined in contrast to the private sphere. The public sphere refers to areas of life that are properly subject to political interference and which should be regulated by principles of justice. The public sphere is sometimes referred to as the political sphere. (p.337)
43. realism
A reaction to warfare that accepts it as somehow beyond moral adjudication. There are, however, different interpretations of how radical this reaction really can be. Cf. pacifism. (p.337)
44. recognition
This refers to the positive assertion of differences in the public space and it is seen as the first symbolkic step towards the full inclusion of minority groups. (p.338)
45. rule utilitariansim
A moral theory that states that we should choose that set of rules which, if consistently followed, would maximize the amount of collective utility of all persons, or even sentient beings (for example, given a hedonistic conception of utility, that set of rules which would maximize the amount of pleasure and minimize the amount of pain in the world). We should then judge the moral acceptability of an actions by reference to these rules. This two-stage approach introduces some distance between the moral acceptability of an act and its consequences, thereby overcoming some of the objections faced by act utilitarianism. (p.338)
46. secession
This describes the process in which a portion of a political community divorces itself from the rest of community to form its own state--that is, a group's act of breaking away from a larger nation to establish its own system of government. For example, the Basques wish for secession from Spain's rule, because they see themselves as culturally distinct from the Spanish. (p.338)
47. security
An individual's securty is another name for his or her civil liberty and political liberty, where political liberty is conceived broadly to include living under a constitutional government that has no authority to violate basic rights, and which is suitably constrained by a system of checks and balances to prevent abuses of authority. Arguably, security is maximized under some form of constitutional democracy, which recognize a basic right to absolute liberty of self-regarding conduct. (p.338)
政治理論（glossary）
41. prioritarianism
A distributive principle according to which the moral value of a benefit or disvalue of a burden diminishes as an individual becomes better off. The standard form of this view requires attaching non-absolute prority to the interests of the less advantaged and is not comparative, although forms of camparative prioritarianism, moderate prioritarianism, and extreme prioritarianism also exist. (p.337)
42. public sphere
Defined in contrast to the private sphere. The public sphere refers to areas of life that are properly subject to political interference and which should be regulated by principles of justice. The public sphere is sometimes referred to as the political sphere. (p.337)
43. realism
A reaction to warfare that accepts it as somehow beyond moral adjudication. There are, however, different interpretations of how radical this reaction really can be. Cf. pacifism. (p.337)
44. recognition
This refers to the positive assertion of differences in the public space and it is seen as the first symbolkic step towards the full inclusion of minority groups. (p.338)
45. rule utilitariansim
A moral theory that states that we should choose that set of rules which, if consistently followed, would maximize the amount of collective utility of all persons, or even sentient beings (for example, given a hedonistic conception of utility, that set of rules which would maximize the amount of pleasure and minimize the amount of pain in the world). We should then judge the moral acceptability of an actions by reference to these rules. This two-stage approach introduces some distance between the moral acceptability of an act and its consequences, thereby overcoming some of the objections faced by act utilitarianism. (p.338)
46. secession
This describes the process in which a portion of a political community divorces itself from the rest of community to form its own state--that is, a group's act of breaking away from a larger nation to establish its own system of government. For example, the Basques wish for secession from Spain's rule, because they see themselves as culturally distinct from the Spanish. (p.338)
47. security
An individual's securty is another name for his or her civil liberty and political liberty, where political liberty is conceived broadly to include living under a constitutional government that has no authority to violate basic rights, and which is suitably constrained by a system of checks and balances to prevent abuses of authority. Arguably, security is maximized under some form of constitutional democracy, which recognize a basic right to absolute liberty of self-regarding conduct. (p.338)
8 manolo 2014-04-05 19:10:11 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
48. self-determination
This view that each people or nation should have its own set of political institutions to enable it to decide collectively on matters that are of primary concern for its members. (p.338)
49. self-regarding conduct
An individual's conduct is 'purely self-regarding' in Mill's sense if, and only if, it does not directly and immediately affect other people, or if it only does so with those people's unoforced and undeceived consent and participation. (p.338)
50. social cleavage
A factor that divides members of society into groups that have different status or resouces. Examples of social cleavages are sex race, and class. (p.338)
51. social construction
This refers to the process by which social norms affect our lives, either by shaping the options that are available to or appropriate for us, or by affacting the way in which we interpret society, understand ourselves, and form preferences. (p.338)
52. social contract
An agreement between persons in a state of nature that establishes the terms for a common society and/or government. (p.338)
53. social norms
There are informal rules about how people ought to behave in a society. Examples of social norms include rules of etiquette, clothing, and social interaction. Social norms can become internalized, such that people prefer to comply with them--for exmaple, many people feel embarrased about passing wind in public and do not wish to do so. (p.338)
54. sovereignty
The supreme authority within a given geographycal territory. (p.339)
55. sufficiency principles （十分性原理）
These are moral principles, assuming that there are non-instrumentally morall relevant thresholds. They are often employed to claim that, when evaluating distributions, what matters is wether individuals have enough to escape absolute deprivation or to live above some ciritical threshold. (p.339)
56. tacit consent
Also sometimes called implicit consent or passive consent, consent that is expressed by doing something that you would not otherwise permitted to do, because someone has a right that you not do that thing without thereby consenting. An example would be tacitly consenting to pay for a meal in a restaurant by eating the meal. Cf. express consent (p.339)
57. Tobin tax（トービン税）
This is the popular name of a currency transaction tax, proposed by James Tobin in the 1970s, as a means of reducing destabilizing trades, slowing down speculation, and promoting more long-term investing. (p.339)
政治理論（glossary）
48. self-determination
This view that each people or nation should have its own set of political institutions to enable it to decide collectively on matters that are of primary concern for its members. (p.338)
49. self-regarding conduct
An individual's conduct is 'purely self-regarding' in Mill's sense if, and only if, it does not directly and immediately affect other people, or if it only does so with those people's unoforced and undeceived consent and participation. (p.338)
50. social cleavage
A factor that divides members of society into groups that have different status or resouces. Examples of social cleavages are sex race, and class. (p.338)
51. social construction
This refers to the process by which social norms affect our lives, either by shaping the options that are available to or appropriate for us, or by affacting the way in which we interpret society, understand ourselves, and form preferences. (p.338)
52. social contract
An agreement between persons in a state of nature that establishes the terms for a common society and/or government. (p.338)
53. social norms
There are informal rules about how people ought to behave in a society. Examples of social norms include rules of etiquette, clothing, and social interaction. Social norms can become internalized, such that people prefer to comply with them--for exmaple, many people feel embarrased about passing wind in public and do not wish to do so. (p.338)
54. sovereignty
The supreme authority within a given geographycal territory. (p.339)
55. sufficiency principles （十分性原理）
These are moral principles, assuming that there are non-instrumentally morall relevant thresholds. They are often employed to claim that, when evaluating distributions, what matters is wether individuals have enough to escape absolute deprivation or to live above some ciritical threshold. (p.339)
56. tacit consent
Also sometimes called implicit consent or passive consent, consent that is expressed by doing something that you would not otherwise permitted to do, because someone has a right that you not do that thing without thereby consenting. An example would be tacitly consenting to pay for a meal in a restaurant by eating the meal. Cf. express consent (p.339)
57. Tobin tax（トービン税）
This is the popular name of a currency transaction tax, proposed by James Tobin in the 1970s, as a means of reducing destabilizing trades, slowing down speculation, and promoting more long-term investing. (p.339)
9 manolo 2014-04-05 19:17:35 [PC]
政治理論（glossary）
58. utilitarianism
The doctrine, of which there are many versions, that social institutions and practices should be organized so as to maximize general welfare or common good at the sole ultimate ethical value, and that individual actions ought also to aim at this end. Mill's version holds that a code of justice and rights is more valuable for this purpose than any competing considerations. (p.339)
59. veil of ignorance（「無知のヴェール」）
A phrase coined by Rawls to refer to the limited knowledge of characteristics--for example, sex. race, and class--that can be (dis)advantaging in the real world, but which ought not to be (dis)advantaging in the just society. (p.339)
60. voluntarism
The view that political authority and obligation is jusified because citizens have voluntarily agreed to obey the law. Often used interchangeably with the terms consent theory and contract theory, although, strictly speaking, voluntarism includes other ways of agreeging to do something to do something, such as promising. (p.339)
政治理論（glossary）
58. utilitarianism
The doctrine, of which there are many versions, that social institutions and practices should be organized so as to maximize general welfare or common good at the sole ultimate ethical value, and that individual actions ought also to aim at this end. Mill's version holds that a code of justice and rights is more valuable for this purpose than any competing considerations. (p.339)
59. veil of ignorance（「無知のヴェール」）
A phrase coined by Rawls to refer to the limited knowledge of characteristics--for example, sex. race, and class--that can be (dis)advantaging in the real world, but which ought not to be (dis)advantaging in the just society. (p.339)
60. voluntarism
The view that political authority and obligation is jusified because citizens have voluntarily agreed to obey the law. Often used interchangeably with the terms consent theory and contract theory, although, strictly speaking, voluntarism includes other ways of agreeging to do something to do something, such as promising. (p.339)